The collapse of the 10-year impossible triangle: Ethereum offers new answers through technological innovation

“Impossible Triangle”—Few concepts are mentioned more frequently in the blockchain industry. During Ethereum’s first 10 years, this theory that only two of the three elements—decentralization, security, and scalability—could coexist was considered an unsolvable puzzle for all developers. However, as of 2026, the Ethereum community led by Vitalik Buterin is declaring that this impossible triangle is transforming from a “philosophical limit” into a “design problem that can be overcome through engineering.” According to new technological outlooks presented in early January, the maturation of PeerDAS and zero-knowledge proof(ZKP) technologies, along with advances in account abstraction, suggest that Ethereum can significantly improve scalability by thousands of times without sacrificing decentralization. So, can the constraints of this impossible triangle truly disappear into history?

The Fundamental Reason Why the “Impossible Triangle” Has Remained Unconquered for So Long

First, let’s revisit the basic concept of the blockchain triangle proposed by Vitalik. This framework explains the three core elements that are difficult for a public blockchain to satisfy simultaneously and has served as the benchmark for all structural choices over the past few years:

• Decentralization: Low barriers to entry, broad participation, and no reliance on a single central authority
• Security: The system’s consistent resistance to malicious attacks, censorship, and forgery
• Scalability: High throughput(TPS), low latency, and excellent user experience

In traditional blockchain architectures, these three elements often conflict. For example, increasing throughput typically requires higher hardware demands on nodes or centralized coordination mechanisms. Reducing node burden weakens security assumptions, and pursuing extreme decentralization can sacrifice performance—creating a vicious cycle.

Looking at answers proposed by major chains over the past 5–10 years—from Cosmos to Solana, Sui, and Aptos—each project clearly prioritizes different aspects. Some sacrificed decentralization for performance, some adopted committee mechanisms to improve efficiency, and others accepted performance limitations to prioritize verification freedom. However, the commonality among nearly all scalability solutions was that only two of the three elements could be satisfied simultaneously, and the third had to be sacrificed.

Since Ethereum’s shift in 2020 from a monolithic structure to a layered architecture centered on rollups, and with the rapid maturation of zero-knowledge proof technology recently, the situation has begun to change. Over the past five years, Ethereum’s journey toward modularity has redefined the fundamental logic of the impossible triangle. Ethereum is not merely seeking technical compromises; it is disentangling the original constraints through engineering design, gradually transforming this problem from a philosophical debate into a concrete technical roadmap.

“Divide and Conquer”—Ethereum’s Engineering Innovation

Let’s examine how Ethereum has addressed the triangle’s constraints by pursuing multiple technological paths concurrently over the five-year period from 2020 to 2025.

First: Breakthrough in Data Throughput with PeerDAS

Data availability(DA) is often the primary bottleneck determining blockchain scalability. Traditional blockchains require all full nodes to download and verify entire block data, inherently limiting scalability while maintaining security. This is why independent DA solutions like Celestia gained attention in previous cycles.

Ethereum’s approach is fundamentally different. Instead of making nodes more powerful, it fundamentally changes the data verification method. This is where PeerDAS(Peer Data Availability Sampling) comes in:

Nodes no longer need to download entire block data; instead, they probabilistically verify data availability through sampling. Block data is split and encoded, and nodes randomly sample parts. If data is hidden or tampered with, the probability of sampling failure increases exponentially. This dramatically enhances data throughput while allowing even lightweight nodes to participate in verification.

This is not about sacrificing decentralization for performance. Instead, it involves restructuring the verification cost structure through mathematical and design optimization. Vitalik emphasizes that PeerDAS is now a deployed system component, not just a conceptual roadmap, marking a significant step forward in Ethereum’s efforts to balance “scalability × decentralization.”

Second: zkEVM Redefines Verification

zkEVM uses zero-knowledge proofs to address the fundamental question: “Must each node re-execute all computations?” The core idea is simple yet powerful: after executing a block, a verifiable mathematical proof is generated, allowing other nodes to verify the correctness without re-running calculations.

The advantages of zkEVM focus on three points:

• Fast verification: Nodes can confirm block validity immediately by verifying the proof, without re-executing transactions
• Lightweight validation: Significantly reduces computational and storage burdens on full nodes, facilitating participation of light nodes and cross-chain verifiers
• Enhanced security: Compared to optimistic rollups(OP), zk proofs are verified on-chain in real-time, providing much higher tamper resistance

Recently, the Ethereum Foundation announced the official technical standard for real-time zkEVM proofs on Layer 1. This means ZK pathways are now included in the mainnet’s formal technical plans. Over the next 1–2 years, Ethereum will gradually transition to supporting zkEVM verification, achieving a structural shift from “heavy execution” to “proof verification.”

Ethereum’s technical goals are specific:

• Block proof latency: within 10 seconds
• Single proof size: under 300KB
• Security level: at least 128-bit
• Removal of trusted setup
• Minimize decentralization barriers so even consumer-grade devices can generate proofs

( Third: Completing the Multi-layer Architecture—The Era of Modular Blockchains

Beyond these two innovations, Ethereum’s roadmap toward 2030 includes phases like The Surge and The Verge, which encompass:

• Continuous increase in blob)blob### throughput
• Fundamental reorganization of state models
• Gradual adjustment of gas limits
• Maximizing execution layer efficiency

All these efforts are part of a cumulative path to transcend the traditional impossible triangle constraints and lay the foundation for future multi-chain cooperation and interoperability.

Importantly, all these upgrades are carefully designed as interconnected, complementary modules rather than isolated improvements. This reflects Ethereum’s engineering mindset: not seeking a single, magical solution like a monolithic chain, but redistributing costs and risks through layered architecture adjustments.

Ethereum in 2030: The End of the Impossible Triangle

Nevertheless, we should not be hasty. Elements like “decentralization” are not static technical metrics but the result of long-term evolution.

Ethereum is currently exploring the boundaries of the impossible triangle through engineering. Changes in verification methods(recalculation → sampling), evolution of data structures(state expansion → state expiration), shifts in execution models(monolithic → modular)—the existing trade-offs continue to shift, bringing us closer to an “end point” where “we want all of these things.”

Vitalik’s clear timeline is as follows:

2026: Improve execution layer and builder mechanisms, introduce ePBS, enabling higher gas limits without relying on zkEVM, while preparing conditions for widespread zkEVM node operation

2026–2028: Focus on adjusting gas pricing, state structures, and execution load organization to ensure system safety under higher loads

2027–2030: As zkEVM becomes the primary method for block verification, gas limits can be further increased, ultimately supporting more decentralized block production

A comprehensive look at the roadmap suggests that by around 2030, Ethereum will feature:

• A highly simplified Layer 1: no longer handling complex application logic, serving solely as a secure, neutral base providing data availability and payment proofs
• A thriving Layer 2 ecosystem with seamless interoperability: interconnected L2s via interoperability layers(EIL) and fast verification rules, creating a unified system with hundreds of thousands of TPS
• Extremely low verification entry barriers: mature state processing and light client tech enabling even mobile phones to participate in verification, strengthening decentralization

What the “Walkaway Test” Signifies: The True Measure of Success

Interestingly, Vitalik recently emphasized the importance of the “Walkaway Test”(The Walkaway Test)—a standard that all service providers should be able to disappear or be attacked, yet DApps should still run and user assets remain safe.

This elevates the evaluation of overcoming the impossible triangle from mere speed or experience to a core principle: the system’s trustworthiness even in worst-case scenarios, without reliance on single points of failure. This truly signifies the end of the impossible triangle debate.

Conclusion: From a 10-year Debate to 10 Years of Innovation

The philosophical debate over how to overcome the impossible triangle over the past decade is now transitioning into a concrete era of technological realization as of 2026. PeerDAS, zkEVM, and modular architectures are not just technical improvements—they are fundamental attempts to redefine scalability without sacrificing decentralization.

Ethereum’s clear roadmap toward 2030 strongly signals that overcoming the once-thought impossible triangle is indeed achievable. It is no longer a matter of debate but a meeting point of engineering design and technological innovation.